1. What is the trend in invasive alien species (IAS)?

The definition of IAS express the phrase in terms of non indigenous species ( plants or animals) that adversely affect the habitats they invade economically, environmentally or ecologically. An introduced species might become invasive if it can out-compete native species for resources such as nutrients, light, physical space, water or food. If these species evolved under great competitions or predation, the new environment may allow them to proliferate quickly. Ecosystems in which all available resources are being used to their fullest capacity by native species can be modeled as zero sum systems, where any gain for the invader is a loss for the native. However, such unilateral competitive superiority (and extinction of native species with increased populations of the invader) is not the rule. Invasive species often coexist with native species for an extended time, and gradually the superior competitive ability of an invasive species becomes apparent as its population grows larger and denser and it adapts to its new location.

In the Millenium Ecosystem Assessment Report, IAS is globally the second major threat to biodiversity, and it is also fast growing.

2. How are IAS introduced?

Trade, turism and transport (either by land transport and shipping) of goods across borders accelerate the spread of alien species. In Europe the main introduction' ways of IAS are: Suez and Gibraltar, almost 38%; Ships, 25%; Aquaculture, 20%; then also Aquaturism, turism and trade.

4. What are the impacts of IAS?

Altought the Biodiversity loss is the most evident impact, there are some others of different types: environmental and ecological, but also economical.

Biological species invasions alter ecosystems in a multitude of ways.

While all species compete to survive, invasive alien species appear to have specific traits or combinations of specific traits that allow them to outcompete endemyc species. Sometimes they just have the ability to grow and reproduce more rapidly than native species; other times it's more complex, involving a lot of mixed traits and interactions.

As highly adaptable and generalized species are introduced to environments already impacted by human activities, some native species may be put at a disadvantage to survive while other species survival is enhanced.

Invasive species can change the functions of ecosystems. For example invasive plants can alter the fire regime, nutrient cycling, and hydrology in native ecosystems. Invasive species that are closely related with rare native species have the potential to hybridize with the native species. Harmful effects of hybridization have led to a decline and even extinction of native species.

The unintentional introduction of forest pest species and plant pathogens can change forest ecology and negatively impact timber industry.

An increasing threat of exotic diseases exists because of increased transportation and encroachment of humans into previously remote ecosystems (think about the asian tiger mosquitos that is only one example).

Economic costs from invasive species can be separated into direct costs through production loss in agriculture and forestry, and management costs of invasive species. In addition to these costs, economic losses can occur through loss of recreational and tourism revenues. Economic costs of invasions, when calculated as production loss and management costs, are low because they do not usually consider environmental damages. If monetary values could be assigned to the extinction of species, loss in biodiversity, and loss of ecosystem services, costs from impacts of invasive species would drastically increase.

So native species seems to be vulnerable, especially islands species.

And to prevent biodiversity the impact of IAS costs money. In Europe is estimate 12,7billion € per year.

5. What are some ways to address the problem of IAS?

The strategies and guidelines given by the Convention on Biological Diversity aim governments and state that: "Each Contracting Party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species”.

Early detection and constant monitoring is vital to save endemyc species.

Parallel to the development of the strategy, priority interventions at the site level will be implemented, like:

• To increase awareness of invasive alien species as a major issue affecting native biodiversity and ecosystems.

• To encourage necessary research and the development and sharing of an adequate knowledge base to address the problem of invasive alien species.

• To encourage prevention of invasive alien species introductions as a priority issue requiring regional, national and site level actions.

• To minimise the number of unintentional introductions and to prevent unauthorised introductions of alien species.

• To ensure that intentional introductions, including those for biological control purposes, are properly evaluated in advance, with full regard to potential impacts on biodiversity.

• To encourage the development and implementation of eradication and control campaigns and programmes for invasive alien species, and to increase the effectiveness of those campaigns and programmes.

• To encourage the development of a comprehensive framework for national legislation and international cooperation to regulate the introduction of alien species as well as the eradication and control of invasive alien species.

6. What are ecosystem services and how do they affect human well being?

Ecosystem services are defined as the products of ecological functions or processes that directly or indirectly contribute to human well-being, or have the potential to do so in the future. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) defines ecosystem services as the benefits people derive from ecosystems. These include provisioning services such as food and water; regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease; supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling; and cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other nonmaterial benefits.

The well-being should be understood as “state of happiness, good health and/or prosperity” whereas quality if life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people. It consists of two components: physical and psychological. The physical aspect includes such things as health, diet, and protection against pain and disease. The psychological aspect includes stress, worry, pleasure and other positive or negative emotional states.

There are several key components of human well-being:

• the basic material needs for a good life,

• health,

• good social relations,

• and personal security,

• freedom of choice and action

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment aims at identification of direct and indirect ways the change in ecosystem condition can affect the human well-being positively or negatively. The problem is more complicated if one starts to think how multidimensional well-being is and therefore how hard it is to measure it. However, number of indices have been developed dealing with assessing human well-being at different scales (some examples: Human Development Index HDI, Happy Planet Index HPI, US Well Being Index).

7. Name some financial and non-financial measures to pay for Nature.

Financial

How to make Biodiversity an economic and financial value? It is a good task. First we have to list some benefits of a preserved ecosystem and then associate a value with changes of those benefits (food, water, climate regulation, medicines, recreations and so on).

So a financial measure could be a payment to landowners in order to manage their lands to support ecosystems and not to build houses or to establish a new agriculture or aquaculture. Also the idea to apply fees, taxes or fines, to discourage activites that could degrade biodiversity and ecosystem services, is a financial measure to pay for Nature.

Non Financial

But it is important also to establish a mechanism to implement ecosystems, like policy laws, property rights and integrate decisions, in order to develop and use environmentally friendly technologies.

8. Why has the economic valuation of nature not entered the mainstream of out society?

Nature and Environment are used in different ways, especially in tourism and tourism activities. A crucial question is:” it is possible to assign an economic value to nature and the environment?”. If this is possible to do, the decision-making process regarding the use of nature and the environment in tourism activities can be based on sound economic information. This facilitates the decision making process regarding the use of nature.

An important topic is the distinction between nature and the environment. In everyday language, they have approximately the same meaning and are used interchangeable.

In most cases, the environment is defined as the abiotic part of the ecosystem, which implies that water, air and soil pollution are the main issues involved. An additional issue is the use of natural resources such as iron, natural gas, wood and plastics. The latter are economic goods which normally have a price, as they are exchanged in a market. Water, air and soil pollution do not have a price, however. But with regard to water, air and soil pollution people are often economically affected. These costs for consumers and producers can be measured.

Nature, being the biotic part of the ecosystem, particularly in tourism, is not traded in a market which means that it is not possible to assign a suitable price to represent the economic value of nature. Beautiful beaches, mountain scenery and attractive Mediterranean landscapes, for example, are very important for tourists. They can be seen as an input in the production process of the tourism industry and have a high economic value. However, it is not clear how to measure these economic values.

9. Do you think IAS is a serious concern in your region? Why or why not?

Surely IAS is a serous concern in my region, first because my region is an Island and second because Sardinia is in the middle of Mediterranean Sea, and not only a well known turistic area, but also an important trade spot because of its geographical position ( there are lot of ships movements either for oil and goods ). All those considerations are linked with questions and answers 1, 2 and 4.

10. Do you believe that humankind would protect biodiversity better if there were economic values assigned to ecosystem services? Why or why not?

Yes, I do.

First of all we have to increase awareness in biodiversity and also have to know all the consequences regarding our environmental management.

I was thinking about the economic value of great landscapes, well last year in a beautiful turistic place near the South East of Sardinia it occurred a huge oil spill, it was just inside a protected marine area and it was in may, incoming summer. Several mayors tried to figured out causes and management of that environmental but anthropogenic problem. Lots of experts in many topics gave their opinions, but really, in therms of technology or remote monitoring, nothing was done at regional level. As you can image that summer was affected by an economical loss, not only for the turistic reason, but also for the great efforts done by scientists to rescue marine and volatile species.

This is only one example, but it stress out that we have to give an economic value to Nature and Environmental as well, sometimes it will be difficult to do, but we have to try a kind of environmental market, like the carbon market established under the Kyoto Protocol, it could be assigned a certificate with some economic value to any of one ecosystem service at different national level.

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1) What is GMO?

A genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically engineered organism (GEO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. These techniques, generally known as recombinant DNA technology, use DNA molecules from different sources, which are combined into one molecule to create a new set of genes. This DNA is then transferred into an organism, giving it modified or novel genes. Transgenic organisms, a subset of GMOs, are organisms which have inserted DNA that originated in a different species.

Genetic modification involves the insertion or deletion of genes. When genes are inserted, they usually come from a different species, which is a form of horizontal gene transfer. In nature this can occur when exogenous DNA penetrates the cell membrane for any reason. To do this artificially may require attaching the genes to a virus or just physically inserting the extra DNA into the nucleus of the intended host with a very small syringe, or with very small particles fired from a gene gun.

The use of GMOs has sparked significant controversy in many areas. Some groups or individuals see the generation and use of GMO as intolerable meddling with biological states or processes that have naturally evolved over long periods of time, while others are concerned about the limitations of modern science to fully comprehend all of the potential negative ramifications of genetic manipulation.

Some groups believe that underdeveloped nations will not reap the benefits of biotechnology because they do not have easy access to these developments, cannot afford modern agricultural equipment, and certain aspects of the system revolving around intellectual property rights are unfair to undeveloped countries.

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture has attempted to remedy this problem, but results have been inconsistent. As a result, "orphan crops" and indigenous plants, are important in the countries where they are grown, but receive little investment.

Another important controversy is the possibility of unforeseen local and global effects as a result of transgenic organisms proliferating.

An often cited controversy is a "Technology Protection" technology dubbed 'Terminator'. This technology would allow the production of first generation crops that would not generate seeds in the second generation because the plants yield sterile seeds. This technology is intended both to limit the spread of genetically engineered plants, and to require farmers to pay yearly to reactivate the genetically engineered traits of their crops.

In addition to the commercial protection of proprietary technology in self-pollinating crops such as soybean, another purpose of the terminator gene is to prevent the escape of genetically modified traits from cross-pollinating crops into wild-type species by sterilizing any resultant hybrids. The terminator gene technology created a backlash amongst those who felt the technology would prevent re-use of seed by farmers growing such terminator varieties in the developing world and was ostensibly a means to exercise patent claims. Use of the terminator technology would also prevent "volunteers", or crops that grow from unharvested seed.

2) What is genetic engineering in vitro?

Genetic engineering is a laboratory technique used by scientists to change the DNA of living organisms.

The term "genetic engineering" was coined in Jack Williamson's science fiction novel Dragon's Island, published in 1951 two years before Watson and Crick showed that DNA could be the medium of transmission of genetic information.

In vitro means literally "in glass " (from Latin: vitrum=glass). In in vitro experiments, organisms and structures are investigated under experimental conditions rather than in their natural context.

Genetic engineering, recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM) and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct manipulation of an organism's gene. Genetic engineering is different from traditional breeding, where the organism's genes are manipulated indirectly infact GE uses the techniques of molecular cloning and transformation to alter the structure and characteristics of genes directly. Those techniques have found some successes in numerous applications. Some examples are in improving crop technology, the manufacture of synthetic human insulin through the use of modified bacteria and so on.

Molecular biologists have discovered many enzymes which change the structure of DNA in living organisms. Some of these enzymes can cut and join strands of DNA. Using such enzymes, scientists learned to cut specific genes from DNA and to build customized DNA using these genes. They also learned about vectors, strands of DNA such as viruses, which can infect a cell and insert themselves into its DNA.

With this knowledge, scientists started to build vectors which incorporated genes of their choosing and used the new vectors to insert these genes into the DNA of living organisms. Genetic engineers believe they can improve the foods we eat by doing this.

At first glance GE in vitro might look exciting to some people but deeper consideration reveals that could be either health and environmental hazard using indiscriminately this technology.

3) What kinds of GMOs are used now and will be used in future?

GMOs have widespread applications. They are used in biological and medical research, production of pharmaceutical drugs, experimental medicine, and agriculture.

Bacteria were the first organisms to be modified in the laboratory, due to their simple genetics. These organisms are now used for several purposes, and are particularly important in producing large amounts of pure human proteins for use in medicine.

Genetically modified bacteria are used to produce the protein insulin to treat diabetes or are also used in some soils to facilitate crop growth, and can also produce chemicals which are toxic to crop pests.

Transgenic Plants are mainly used nowadays in several countries, and are part of "The Global Diffusion of Plant Biotechnology: the global commercial value of biotech crops grown in the 2003–2004 was about US$44 billion.

Transgenic animals are also becoming useful commercially. On 6 February 2009 the US Food and Drug Administration approved the first human biological drug produced from such an animal, a goat.

In biological research, transgenic fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) are model organisms used to study the effects of genetic changes on development. Fruit flies are often preferred over other animals due to their short life cycle, low maintenance requirements, and relatively simple genome compared to many vertebrates.

Transgenic mice are often used to study cellular and tissue-specific responses to disease. This is possible since mice can be created with the same mutations that occur in human genetic disorders the production of the human disease in these mice then allows treatments to be tested.

Transgenesis in fish have been created for use in the aquaculture industry to increase the speed of development and potentially, reduce fishing pressure on wild stocks. None of these GM fish have yet appeared on the market, mainly due to the concern, expressed among the public, of the fish's potential negative effect on the ecosystem if they escape from fish farms.

Gene Therapy uses genetically modified viruses to deliver genes that can cure disease into human cells. Although gene therapy is still relatively new, it has had some successes. It has been used to treat genetic disorders such several immunodeficiency and treatments are being developed for a range of other currently incurable diseases.

I really can't assume that GMOs are good or not, but I think that the main concern is to study what is good for human and nature and what is wrong, and why. I think that GMOs future will be in developing and using carefully the genetic engineering, having always clear what we know and what we have to know about all the GMOs effect. Regarding this are good the risk assessment processes stressed about GMO and their products. All the risks for human and environment have to be regulated and studied (as well as for medicines or other goods that affected life).

4) GMO's products and natural products made by GMOs (examples)

The well known Big Four of GM Crops are Soybean, Maize, Rapeseed and Cotton.

Over half of the world's 2007 soybean crop (59%) was genetically modified, a higher percentage than for any other crop. Each year, the EU Member States import approximately 40 million tonnes of soy material, primarily used for feeding cattle, swine, and chickens. Soybeans are also used to produce many food additives.

Maize is the only GM crop that is currently being grown in Europe. Maize is used primarily for animal feed and is also an important raw material for the starch industry. If GM maize production in Europe were to increase, it would most likely make its way into food products.

Until recently, rapeseed was a relatively unimportant crop. Today rapeseed is grown not only as raw material for renewable resources, but also as a source of oil that is used to produce margarine. There is no GM rapeseed currently being grown in Europe. In Canada, however, GM rapeseed has become widespread.

Cotton is not only important as a source of fibre for textiles. The seeds make up an important part of food and animal feed. GM cotton is grown primarily in India, China and the United States. China is currently expanding its production of GM cotton, which could allow for drastic reductions in pesticide use.

No genetically modified fruit or vegetables are on the market in the EU. Any GM plants authorised in the EU are not intended for direct consumption.

Nevertheless, genetic engineering has become standard practice when it comes to research and crop improvement.

Ongoing projects are working on giving plants resistance to problematic pests and diseases.

For the most part, foods in European supermarkets are not genetically modified. But that doesn't mean genetic engineering doesn't play a role in the production of the food we eat each day.

Common ingredients that could be produced with genetic engineering are a) baked goods made of flour of GM soybean or olis from GM soybean or GM rapeseed; b) sweets products made of lechitin derived by GM soy, glucose or glucose syrup from GM maize, sugar from GM sugar beets, other additives, vitamines or enzymes from other GMOs.

5) What is risk assessment for GMOs?

The safety of GMOs in the foodchain has been questioned, with concerns such as the possibilities that GMOs could introduce new allergens into foods, or contribute to the spread of antibiotic resistance. Although scientists have assured consumers of the safety of these types of crops, consumption has been discouraged in many countries by food and environmental activist groups who protest GM crops, claiming they are unnatural and therefore unsafe. This has led to the adoption of laws and regulations that require safety testing of any new organism produced for human consumption. For that reasons the risk assessment considers the exposure of humans or the environment to genetically modified organism during the operation of, or possible unintended release from, a contained use facility.

Commission of the European Communities Guidance assumes the importance of risk assessment and outlined in council directive 90/219/EEC the use of genetically modified micro-organisms.

The risk assessment must take in consideration potentially harmful effects to human health and the environment.

Potentially harmful effects are defined as those effects which may give rise to disease, render prophylaxis or treatment ineffective, promote establishment and/or dissemination in the environment which gives rise to harmful effects on organisms or natural populations present or harmful effects arising from gene transfer to other organisms. The degree of risk arising from contained uses with a genetically modified organism, and their construction, is determined by consideration of the severity of the potential harmful effects, to human health or the environment, with the possibility of those effects occurring.

The full risk assessment process consists of two procedures outlined below:

Procedure 1

• Identify potential harmful properties (hazard) of the GMO and allocate the GMO to an initial class taking into account the severity of the potential harmful effects.

• Assessment of possibility of harmful effects occurring by consideration of exposure (both human and environmental) taking into account the nature and scale of the work, with containment measures appropriate to the initial class allocated.

Procedure 2

• Determination of final classification and containment measures required for the activity.

• Confirm final classification and containment measures are adequate by revisiting Procedure 1.

Aspects that should be considered are:

• how relevant is the recipient organism;

• the donor organism;

• the insert;

• the vector;

• the resulting GMO;

• last but not least human health and environmental considerations.

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1. Water Resources Management is not made by water managers alone. Identify the actors involved in the process and explain why they influence final management decisions?

Water is one of our most critical resources, but around the world it is under threat. This cross-cutting issue demands a coordinated approach. The success in avoiding a global water crisis is directly linked to the ability to address other global challenges from poverty eradication and environmental sustainability to fluctuating food and energy costs and financial turmoil in world economies. It is therefore imperative that global risks, including those associated with water, be dealt with in an integrated manner. We must develop interdisciplinary tools that can take into account different drivers such as climate change and financial markets to achieve sustainable water management. This requires the engagement of all stakeholders, particularly government leaders, as well as global coordination through the UN system.

Infact, in order to achieve a good governance of water resources, that is Integrated Water Resources Management, we can identify different dimension of actors: Social, Economic, Environmental and Political. So it is clear that all the actors are involved in the final management decisions.

2. Identify the type of drivers affecting water systems.

Important decisions affecting water management are made outside the water sector and are driven by external, largely unpredictable drivers – demography, climate change, the global economy, changing societal values and norms, technological innovation, laws and customs, and financial markets. Many of these external drivers are dynamic and changing at a faster place. Developments outside the water domain influence water management strategies and policies. Decisions in other sectors and those related to development, growth and livelihoods need to incorporate water as an integral component, including responses to climate change, food and energy challenges and disaster management. The analysis of these issues leads to a set of responses and recommendations for action that incorporate the contribution of water to sustainable development.

3. Identify the recent challenges of financing water systems.

So it is clear, the ‘water box’ dilemma must be resolved. Leaders in the water sector, water supply and sanitation, hydro-power, irrigation and food control have long been aware that water is essential to sustainable development, but they do not make the decisions on development objectives and the allocation of human and financial resources to meet them. These decisions are made or influenced by leaders in government, the private sector and civil society, who must learn to recognize water’s role in obtaining their objectives. These challenges cannot be separated from the challenges of sustainable development in a complex global context. So there is evidence of the need for public, private sector, civil society and communities to invest and become involved in water resources infrastructure and implementation capacity for the global environmental sustainability.

Bilateral donors, important in funding water investments, must avoid the temptation to reduce their aid budgets during the current global financial and economic crises. Like other physical infrastructure, water infrastructure deteriorates over time and needs repair and replacement. Investment is also required in operation and maintenance and in developing the capacity of the sector so that infrastructure meets appropriate standards and functions efficiently.

4. Discuss the cause-effect chains and links between water and MDG (Millennium Development Goals).

Water is essential for achieving sustainable development and the Millennium Development Goals. Actually, properly managing water resources is an essential component of growth, social and economic development, poverty reduction, equity and access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation – all essential for achieving the Millennium Development Goals.

But, although those components are well established, they are also largely ignored.

It is not enough to hope that the trickle-down effects of economic growth will result in equitable distribution that includes the poor. The economic growth and poverty-reducing contributions of water resources must be made explicit and specific at the country level. Intergovernmental efforts must support such actions and maintain the momentum of the global commitments made since the Millennium Declaration in 2000. While mitigation of anthropogenic climate change is vital, the blunt reality is that all countries – particularly developing countries that will be hit hardest and earliest – and business sectors must also adapt to climate change. Even if greenhouse gas concentrations stabilize in the coming years, some impacts from climate change are unavoidable.

These include increasing water stress in many regions, more extreme weather events, the potential for large population migration and the disruption of international markets.

5. How participatory approach is important and can improve water management?

Water is a finite and vulnerable resource that must be sustained for future generations. Water is required to sustain the environment and support economic development as well. It is not only a gift of nature; it is part of human civilization shaping it in a variety of ways. It has a social and cultural value for human community. Today, when scarcity has turned water into an economic good, it has become a subject of political contention involving community rights, social rights with corporate demands posing a challenge for the State to evolve new policies. The goal of balancing the short-term and longer-term needs of society can best be accomplished through a participatory, democratic and pro-people management approach to environment that integrates land and water use across whole catchment areas and aquifers.

There are different approaches to water management such as institutional approach towards water management, scientific management for economic development, user management approaches to water management, private participation in water management and regulations, etc. For the purpose of overall development, resource management approach to water alone is not of much help instead an interdisciplinary perspective with participatory approach is what is required.

Specialists and managers in water supply and sanitation, hydro-power, irrigation and food control have long been aware of this. But they often have a narrow, sectoral perspective that blinds many decisions on water. And they do not make the decisions on development objectives and financial resources needed to meet these broader objectives. A coordinated action is required now. Lives and livelihoods depend on water for development. After decades of inaction, the problems are enormous. And they will worsen if left unattended. But while the challenges are substantial, they are not insurmountable. Recognizing the links between water resources and other crises around the world and between water resources and development, leaders in the water domain and decision-makers outside it must act together now to meet all the challenges on water resources management and sustainable development.

The World Water Assessment Program and its partners are working to help reduce uncertainty, facilitate decision-making and accelerate investment by highlighting the links between socioeconomic development and investment in water management capacity and infrastructure in other sectors. The challenges are great, but unsustainable management and inequitable access to water resources cannot continue. Actions must include increased investment in water infrastructure and capacity development. Leaders in the water domain can inform the processes outside their domain and manage water resources to achieve agreed socioeconomic objectives and environmental integrity. But leaders in government, the private sector and civil society will determine the direction that actions take.

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